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• Summary
• Bibliography

Introduction

? Public Service Broadcasting
1. Significant sectors of radio and almost all TV services were public until the 1980s
2. Mission based on diversity of content, universal access and quality programming
3. PSB able to resist “commodification of information” and resulting restrictions in the written press
4. PSB being reevaluated for social, political, economic and technological reasons
5. Currently, commitment to reinforcing social values being questioned

­Press never more pluralistic in Europe than after war
­Governments regulate media after seeing power, use it for varying degrees of social  acquiescence toward
 reconstruction plans
-Public service media presented images and discourse that Western Europeans share certain cultural and moral values, though distinguished by culture
 
Hobsbawm – “Social Revolution”
1. Decline of agriculture peasantry
2. Post-war urbanization
3. Improved educational standards
4. Decline in post 1980s of industrial working class, resulting in decline in working-class solidarity that has fragmented the whole social stratum
5. Importance of women in labor market and their emergence as political/economic force

Cultural Revolution
1. Weakening of family ties
2. New climate of sexual freedom
3. Emergence since 1960s of a youth culture
­Culture of late 20th century the triumph of individual over society
­Media has both influenced and facilitated social and cultural change

Economic Factors
1. Globalization of communications industry led by American and Japanese conglomerates and global market Deregulation
2. Expansion of activities of players in European communications industry
 ­high risk and capital intensive investment with technology leads to mergers to spread load of investment/reduce risks of mergers to form strong, competing European global corporations
3.  Expansion + Concentration = Media Integration
­fear that such integration will reduce information sources by placing formerly independent sources
 within a single, larger group

4. Commercialization - characteristic of media at end of 20th century
­organizational consequences from economic integration
­increased power and influence of financial interests:
 advertisers spend $60 billion in Europe in 1992
­increased advertising revenue, encouraged by deregulation, has reinvigorated commercial broadcasting and boosted fortunes of print media
­increased commercialization has led to an abandon of diversified programming in favor of specialized,
 individual tastes, with a parallel trend of audience fragmentation

Technology
­Where it is established, new cable and satellite broadcasters will continue the trend of media and
  social fragmentation
 

European Legislation
     Attempt by EU to from transnational broadcasting

­difficult initiative since nearly all national systems serve self-contained political and socio-cultural systems
­a vast but segmented broadcasting market occupied by both public and private corporations and in which Americans, Japanese and others have made solid inroads
­barriers to programming interchange appear to be linguistic and cultural
­European viewers prefer native programs first, imported programs mostly from US second, then
 programs from other states
­European market has developed in some ways: more collaborative deals, co-productions and diversification
 in new media
 
Summary
1. At this moment, a weakened public broadcasting service
and an under-performing European private sector
2. Mediation of supra-national Europe will likely take place
within respective national media
3. Private broadcasters and commercialization likely to play a larger role

Mass Media in Spain
1936 to 1939:  A military uprising headed by General Francisco Franco spreads rapidly all over the country starting the Spanish Civil War.

1939:  Franco made a victorious entry to Madrid and officially ended the war.   Dictatorship regime starts. 

1947:  Franco announces the restoration of the monarchy when he dies or retires (law of succession).

1975:  Franco dies, King Juan Carlos takes the oath as King of Spain.

1978:  The Spanish people approve by an 88% majority the new Constitution, which defines Spain as a Parliamentary Monarchy.

1982-1996:  PSOE (Socialist Labor Party), Felipe Gonzalez, won elections.

1986 : Spain is accepted as a member of EC.  

1996 - :  Partido Popular (PP) Jose Maria Aznar.
 

The Written Press

- Newspapers and magazines are privately owned.  There is a tendency toward concentration of ownership and production in the Spanish newspaper industry (20 newspapers control about 70 percent of the total newspaper circulation)

- Most magazines have national distribution, contrary to newspapers

- More than a hundred newspapers (some of them regional editions of national newspapers)

- Best selling, MARCA, a national daily sport newspaper 
475,000 copies per issue.

- AS  ?  100,000 copies per issue.
- Daily National general information newspapers.
- El País  ? 420,000
- ABC     ? 321,000
- El Mundo  ? 300,000

- Regional best selling 
- El Periodico (Catalonian) 215,000
-  Most newspapers are published in Spanish.  Only six of
them are in Catalan and one in Basque, and few more are bilingual,  Catalan/Spanish, Galician/Spanish and Basque/Spanish.  The circulation rate of these newspapers is very low.

-  The total readership is 13 million readers, about 38% of the population. Low rates are in part due to the fact that Spain is a country with a poor reading tradition and there are no popular daily newspapers (yellow press) as in other countries.

-  To overcome this low circulation of newspapers and the increasing cost:
- some national newspapers publish in some CCAA in order to increase their sale regionally.
- Large investment in editorial promotions.

There are about 350 periodicals.  Few of them exceed 500,000 copies.  Among these are HOLA and PRONTO
 

The Audiovisual Media

? Radiotelevision Española (RTVE) - - Controlled by a central administration, which operates the two public national television channels  
- TVE-1
- La 2

? TVE International  -- broadcasting by satellite to Western Europe and Latin America

? Radio Nacional de España --- 459 radio stations, 105 AM, 354 FM, among them, Radio Exterior de España:  The first short wave station in Spanish language and the third in the world, after BBC and Radio Vaticano.

The regional channels are also managed by public (regional) companies and dependent upon the regional parliaments.  Every regional radio and television corporation owns a regional radio.

There are about 400 local public radio stations (called radios municipales) depending on municipal councils.

In 1989 three private national television channels started to broadcast through a terrestrial network and by satellite too (Hispasat)
- Antena 3
- Tele 5
- Canal +

There are no foreign investments in the radio industry.  By the end of 1996, only Televisa, The Mexican group had bought the total capital of Radio España and Cadena Iberica.
 

Spanish Media Policies:

? The activity of the press is free, only subject to legislation protecting honor and individual privacy, the Penal Code, as well as the respect of the Constitution.

? There are no limitations to the ownership of publications, however, the participation of press companies in radio and TV is regulated in order to guarantee the plurality of these two media and to avoid monopolization.  In 1986, the entry of foreign capital in Spanish press was liberalized.

Spanish Media Trends:

There are two Spanish general economic trends being applicable to the media.  Privatization and liberalization.

1996 ? Aznar, conservative party

? Privatization of some public regional channels or maybe one national channel could take place
? Liberalization and reorganization of the convergent industries of telecommunications, cable and television.
 

EFE  

It is the Spain global news agency (since 1939)

Its success has been due to the guaranteed markets in Latin America, 420 million Spanish speakers.

Its credibility has been questioned in Western circles because 98 percent of its shares are states or quasi states owned.

Changes in Spanish government have always affected EFE

Provide 30% of international news in Latin America  

Leader among  Spanish speaking international news agency.
 
 

• Mass Media in France

“The distinctive quality of the French media has its origins in the country¹s history. France is a country whose existence as a community rests on the fundamental roles played within it by political and institutional forms. In France, the sense of social cohesion, the sense of belonging, together constitute a political experience derived from the citizen’s contact with national institutions.”

Four Roles

1. Create common culture (pictures, analyses, information)
2. Media as self-reflecting image: 1-public as actors in a political space, 2-public as users of information systems
­tradition of political “engagement”
­French TV -  presenter of info/ government defender 
­centrality of public service broadcasting
­success of regional press - offers an image people can identify with
3. The manner in which information is relayed itself becomes a socialized space and political domain
4. An emerging economic force: post-industrial modernity
­commercial pressures, internal and external, changing service dynamics
­state-led initiative to modernize comm.  structures
­information and communication industry one of the most dynamic

State and Legislation
State is the primary force in the economic and institutional life of the nation

1974 - ORTF, state TV and radio monopoly is broken into
            smaller companies
1982 - Ended state monopoly; Canal + pay channel began
1984 - Law intended to control and reduce press 
           concentration/sustain pluralism; aimed at Robert 
   Hersant, but Socialist govt. wasn’t strict in enforcing 
CSA - regulatory body; state the cornerstone of activity that 
   ensures the centrality of public sector in media and 
   communications

Development of Written Press since 1945

Laws of 1944 - guarantee freedom of the press with measures restricting and identifying the ownership of newspapers

Today - tendency toward concentration and emergence of press conglomerates such as Hersant and Hachette

Socpresse (Hersant)
national papers: Le Figaro, France Soir, Paris Turf

20 other regional and local mainland titles and others in DOM-TOM
 

Press Characteristics
presse d’information - 3 features

1. Information as a political element: information directed toward the public sphere dominated by public debate
­requires an act of choice and political commitment on the part of the reader, viewer or user of info
­media play role as “political players” engaged in the nation’s political and institutional struggles
­with possible exception of Le Monde, French papers do little to separate factual from editorial
­the “bias” in discourse is considered an integral part of discourse relating to event within the public sphere

2. Importance of regional news
­national and regional press relate to a different public discourse and separate objectives that rarely coincide
­readers of Le Monde or other national papers also read regional papers

3. Wide range of topics and news
­range of topics treated similarly to maintain news flow
­coverage prioritizes the importance of the info
­nature of information contained in press determines relationship with readers and reader choice

Freedom of Press:

Political and Economical Issues
Law of 1881 - Access to/publication of information free
­considered the permanent, immutable basis of press freedom in France
­limited in 3 ways: personal defamation/libel, public
 good taste/moral values, and national  security

Numerous other constraints relating to issues of ownership and finance which influence the nature of press freedom
­despite legislation aiding smaller papers, a combination of falling revenues from advertising and rising costs has aggravated difficulties of the daily press, threatening its plurality and freedom
­significant decline in written press plurality:
1945 - 370 of every 1000 read the paper
1985 - 185 of every 1000

National titles have fallen from 60 in 1914 to 11 in 1990,
and regional titles have fallen from 242 to 62

Economic Development of 
Written Press Since 1970

Moving the press toward a new economic role and status
1. Modernization of distribution methods
2. Introduction of computerized production
3. Decentralization of newspaper production
4. Growth of multi-media activities

 Cultural Element

Cultural activities in media are important because it serves the formation of civic values and social group adhesion

Daily Press has specified sections and coverage:
­culture enhances “serious” aspect and status by its appropriation of themes and topics deemed socially, intellectually and aesthetically worthy, even elitist
­cultural information of this kind turns press into essential vectors of ideological/aesthetic debate for its readers who share same cultural/political values

Cultural information gives media a wider dimension than political/institutional, placing it within a framework that contributes to the formation of socio-cultural identity and group membership

Broadcasting

Radio: state retained monopoly until 1981, with outside commercial stations transmitting in the country
­now a mix of state radio, commercial radio and other stations of mixed status
­commercial stations are more local and music-oriented

Television: characteristic feature is the slow process by which it achieved separation from state influence and interference 
­for decades, French TV was widely used by government as an instrument of propaganda in the furtherance of presidential and official powers (de Gaulle)
­May 1968: call for liberation of radio and TV forcefully expressed

Public channels: France 2, France 3
Private commercial channels: TF1, M6, Canal +
Indirect PSB channels: Arte, La Cinquieme

Case of Arte
PSB channel promoted by French/German governments
­innovative and experimental channel
­1st transnational channel resulting from cooperation between 2 countries
­acceptance of bilingualism on one channel
­innovative programming of contemporary, sophisticated material over a range of ideas and cultural ideas
­committed exclusively to cultural programming
­future lies in capacity to retain a viable audience given the challenging nature of its programs, inevitably considered elitist in nature
­this initiative is best way of increasing dissemination of transcultural information of this kind

Conclusion

Media influences and shape social identification and cohesion
­in this respect, media are not mere vectors of  information but play an institutional role
­media both facilitate and express socio-cultural group membership by giving the latter an almost measurable consistency and intelligibility
­strong political and institutional overtones which play a major role in shaping French social identity
­it is through media that the public sphere takes on its role as a forum for dialogue, confrontation and political maneuver
­French media, and written press in particular, constitute a powerful force for the expression of social attitudes and sustaining of dynamic, public dialogue

Functional Characteristics
1. Forum for democratic debate
2. Modernization of French society
3. Cultural memory function

“La radio informe, la télévision montre,
le journal explique.”  Hubert-Beuve Méry, founder (1970)

­Replaced Le Temps after the liberation, and de Gaulle said it must be “an instrument of the national conscience”

­An independent paper set up as a shared-ownership between members and employees
TV under de Gaulle

1. TV slow to come to France on a wide scale, and its strongest influence came only in the 1960s, then displacing the press and radio as principal medium of national and international information

2. Greatly changed political communications process and became the mass disseminator of culture

3. State domination:  ORTF reaffirmed state¹s role
­monopoly of ownership
­policy maker and regulator
­financial controller
­a source of Gaullist political patronage
­defined TV¹s political agenda
­used by state to pursue its cultural goals
­formulator of industrial policy

4. de Gaulle¹s regime a very contested one, and TV was used as ideological tool in the process of legitimizing the 5th Republic

5. de Gaulle used TV to help propagate the myth of his self-ascribed destiny to rule France, using TV to disseminate the view that he and the regime were inseparable

Events of May 1968

1. Strikes, street demonstrations, barricades, scenes of police violence - an issue for saturation TV coverage

2. ORTF¹s initial lack of coverage revealed the extent to which TV functioned as part of the executive branch

3. ORTF journalists found the contradictions of their system exposed, and Gaullist officials realized the limitations of state control

4. ORTF journalists and general staff went on strike condemning government directives and management compliance

5. As events calmed down, strike petered out, and de Gaulle¹s success in the following elections led to minor reforms, but the dismissal of 36 journalists and “exile” of 16 others in province ­ government also reasserted its control and manipulation of political information

6. 1968 events illustrated TV¹s subordination as a medium of political information under de Gaulle, yet also marked the end of government manipulation and control

7. Broadcasting workforce has expressed its discontent, and TV viewers were becoming more sophisticated. As a result, the government had to modify its role with TV
 

•  Swedish Mass Media

1.  The Metropolitan Morning Papers
25% of total paper circulation
Daily Papers

2.  Single-copy Sales Papers
20% of total paper circulation
Tabloid Dailies

3.  Regional/Local Papers
45% of total paper circulation
Published 3 times per week
4.  Low-Frequency Papers
Less than 5% of total paper circulation
Published once a week

? 1996 revenues = $2 billion
? Government subsidies to weak papers since 1970’s (about 3% of total press revenues)
? Tax break (VAT of 6% instead of 25%)
? Constant decline in general magazine circulation, but expansion of specialty mags

? The Audio-Visual Media
? Radio/TV introduced as public service media
? Swedish Radio granted monopoly in 1925
? TV in 1955 as Swedish Broadcasting Corporation
? Neighborhood radio starts in 1978
? Satellite allowed in 1986, TV3 in 1987, TV4 in 1992 (commercial), 1993 commercial radio
? Freedom of Expression Act
- TV contracts for five years at a time granted by government
- Broadcasting by consent of government
? RADIO
- Sveriges Radio is dominant radio station with 70% of listening audience (public service radio)
- Four channels – P1 (news/culture), P2 (classical), P3 (youth), P4 (25 regional outlets)
- Regional stations are commercial (10k radius)
- 1996 figures showed substantial $ losses, even with government subsidies
? TELEVISION
- Sveriges TV – SVT1 (public broadcasting), SV2 (ten local district stations), Satellite/Cable TV
- Privately-owned TV (40-60% of viewing audience)
? TV3 HQ in London and influenced by FOX TV
? TV4 All purchased programming, internal news
? Kanal 5 owned by Disney/Cap Cities (Brown & Williamson company)
? Z-TV and TV6

? National Media Policies
? Newspapers – devoted to pluralism with support to weak papers to maintain their solvency
? Radio/TV – Open markets with restrictions on advertising to restrict competition with newspapers
? Regulation to prevent concentration by media moguls up for consideration

? Accountability Systems
? Publicity Rules, 1900 – Fairness in reporting, privacy, right to reply, ethical photos
? Rules of Professional Journalism, 1968 – conduct, integrity, and ethics of journalists
? Rules of Editorial Advertising, 1970 – Regulation of advertising vs. editorials

? Media Organizations
? Association of Newspaper Publishers – labor negotiations and paper concerns
? Union of Swedish Journalists – nearly 100% participation
? The Publicists’ Club – ethical conduct of mass media

? Media Developments 
? Commission of 1996 discussed digitalization of TV under government control to start in late 1998
? Social Democrats are concerned with increased commercialization and are proposing more regulation
? PC concentration of 40% of households in 1996, Internet at 10%
? Telia (telecom company) beginning joint venture with CNN International to launch cable network
? Rules to regulate media concentration by 1999

? The Bonnier Group Holdings
Radio/TV     Newspapers
 Dagens TV    Dagens Industri 
 Mix Megapol  ¼ of  Dagens Nyheter
 ON-TV   total  Expressen
TV på Internet     circulation Sydvenska Dagbladet
TV4      Dagblatet Børsen
Radiobokningen

Magazines
 Bonniers Veckotidningar
  Amelia   Damernas Värld
  Vecko Revyn  Året Runt
 Privata Affärer
 Veckans Affärer
 Resumé
 Special tidningsförlaget
  Allt om Trädgård Fitness
  Internet Guiden  Kamratposten
  POP
Mailbus Group
 Bonnier Publications (dk)
 

Film/Video    New Media
 SF Bio     Bonnier Multimedia
 SF Media     Digital Illusions
 Scand. Home Entertain.  Job’s Place
Biografen Sture    ON-TV, Internet TV
       Industritorget
       Bonnier Online
Music
 Scandinavian Home Entertainment

Other Bonnier Holdings
 Semic Interprint, Hungary
  -New technologies, 50+ publications, 
 childrens’ lit
 Äripäev – Estonia’s largest paper
 Solna Presses Europe
 Sangtec medical
 AB Svensk Filmindustri
  SF (#1) and Europafilm (#2) 
 

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Spain Bibliography

http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/spaincat.html

Spanish site into The European Journalism Center electronic page.  Presents an 
overview of Spanish written press, audiovisual media, media policies and media
trends. (October 21,1998)

http://huizen.dds.nl/~jaoskam/indexes.htm

"Jeroen Oskam.  Investigaciones sobre la historia cultural contemporánea de
España"  Addresses the studies of cultures, political sciences and contemporary history of Spain.  Topic as communication censorship, and Catholic Church as a censor element in the political context are presented.  Site in Spanish and English. (October 22, 1998) 

http://apolo.lcc.uma.es/tea/cap1/cee.html

"La Comunidad Económica Europea"  General information about European 
Community and brief reference to its communication policies. Spanish site. 
(October 22, 1998)

http://www.geocities.com/athens/pathenon/4087/anson14.html

Addresses  specific articles from "El País", a Spaniard national daily newspaper.  
These articles are related to censorship in Spain. Spanish site. (October 22, 1998)

http://www.elpais.esp/

"El País digital".  Electronic page of El País.  Spaniard daily newspaper.

http://www.efe.es

Electronic page of EFE, the Spaniard international news agency.  
(October, 22, 1998)

http://www.docuweb.ca/sispain/english/history

Contemporary history of Spain. (October 22, 1998)
 
 
 
 

French Bibliography

“Exploring the Limits: Europe’s Changing Communication Environment.”  European
Communication Council Report 1997. New York: Springer, 1997.

This book looks in detail at the future of new technologies in a
European communication’s framework. It also provided extensive and
useful statistics on all relevant media subjects, television, radio,
film, etc., used as a base for looking into the future of
communications in Europe.
 

Grosse, Ernst Ulrich and Ernst Seibold, eds. Panaroma de la Presse Parisienne: Histoire
et Actualite, Genres et Langages. New York: Peter Lang, 1994.

This book provides an overview of all the current major Parisian dailies,
including history and evolution. It was used to look into the history and
development of Le Monde as well as examining its particular style.

Kuhn, Raymond. The Media in France. New York: Routledge, 1995.

Focusing on France, the author highlights the history, politics and
economics of its press, and the gradual move of television from
propaganda towards liberalization. It was used in particular to look at
Charles de Gaulle’s use of television to promote his political ideology.

Thibau, Jacques. Le Monde 1944-1996: Histoire d’un journal, Un journal dans
l’Histoire.  Paris: Plon, 1996.

A comprehensive history of the newspaper used to gather background data
on its unique organization, development and style.
 

Weymouth, Anthony and Bernard Lamizet. Markets and Myths: Forces for Change in
the Media of Western Europe. New York: Longman, 1996.

This book gives a good assessment of the general history and development of media in Western Europe since World War II. It also focuses on particular nations, including France, and was used to outline the characteristics and changes in French media.
 
 

 Swedish Bibliography

“AB Svensk Filmindustri.”  October 20, 1998.
http://www.sfsales.net
 
This website will be used to show some of the public holdings of the Bonnier 
Group, a media and business conglomerate originating in Sweden.
 

“European Media Landscape: Sweden, Factual Overview.”  October 20,
1998.
http://www.ejc.nl/jr/emland/swedenfac.html

 This website will be used as the major background for the presentation on 
Swedish mass media systems.  It includes an brief overview of Swedish radio, 
television, print journalism, and state regulations of these industries.
 

“Journalism’s Discursive Events and Socio-political Change in Sweden 1925-87.” 
Ekecrantz, Jan.  Media, Culture and Society.  Volume 19, 1997.  United 
Kingdom:  Sage Publications, 1997, pp. 393-412.

This book will be used to provide an evolution of the historical background of
 Swedish mass media systems.

“MBP Press.”  October 20, 1998.      
http://www.mbp.ee/english.htm

 This website will be used to show some of the public holdings of the Bonnier
Group, a media and business conglomerate originating in Sweden.
 

 “Sangtec Medical.”  October 20, 1998.
http://www.samgtec.se
 
This website will be used to show some of the public holdings of the Bonnier 
Group, a media and business conglomerate originating in Sweden.
 

Semic Interprint, Hungary.”  October 20, 1998.
http://www.offers.isys.hu/semic.htm
 This website will be used to show some of the public holdings of the Bonnier 
Group, a media and business conglomerate originating in Sweden.
 

“Solna Presses.”  October 20, 1998 http://www.solna.com/newsw96/running.htm

 This website will be used to show some of the public holdings of the Bonnier 
Group, a media and business conglomerate originating in Sweden.