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Hollywood and Minorities
By Jerry Stewart
Recently, minority groups have appealed to Hollywood to clean up its representation of their people in movies and on television. Some see this as minority groups simply trying to enforce their own form of political correctness and their own agendas on the rest of America, and these images are simply used in good fun, not meant to be injurious to anyone or any group. But these groups see a far more sinister motive. Three of the most lampooned groups in American media are the Blacks, Latinos, and Arabs/Muslims.
According to a report from Pomona College, although it may seem that
Blacks in Hollywood have made great strides since the days of Amos ‘n’
Andy and Buckwheat, the surface hype tends to cover up the underlying racism
still proliferating throughout movies and television. In his book
Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies and Bucks, David Bogle classifies Black
roles into the categories in the title. Toms are gentle, quiet, somewhat
ignorant, religious men. Coons are buffoons that butcher English,
avoid work, and pretend to know everything. Mammies are fat, excitable,
advice-giving maids (pomona, 1998: 2). Today, the images are just
as hard to ignore. Pimps, prostitutes, criminals, killers, drug addicts,
and clowns are the new images. If a Black is not a police officer
or a criminal, he is often found to be a clown. Hit sitcoms like
Martin and Fresh Prince of Bel Air continue to portray this image of Black
men as the court jester. Instead of trying to correctly portray Black
culture by using Black writers and Black casting agents, Hollywood continues
to rely on what Whites think Black “reality” is (pamona, 3).
Latinos do not get a much better portrayal in Hollywood. Typically,
Latinos are seen in a negative light, focusing on issues of crime, immigration,
drugs, gangs, and welfare, even in the network news. The image of
a Hispanic-American is one of an illegal immigrant taking jobs and welfare
money away from citizens of the United States, and who might just commit
a crime as well (Rivera, 1988: 1). The phenomenon is what is classified
as “the pathology of minority behavior” – drugs, gangs, crime, violence,
poverty, illiteracy (Rivera, 2).
The most recent group to be stereotyped in Hollywood is the Arabs.
In the past, Arabs were oil sheiks and nomads in flowing robes, riding
on camels in the desert. Today’s Arab in Hollywood is a heartless,
Muslim fundamentalist, terrorist bent on buying his way through life with
a submissive wife(s) dressed in a black chador from head to toe.
“In more than 800 feature films and hundreds of television programs, producers
bombarded audiences with rigid and repulsive depictions that demonize and
delegitimize the Arab” (Shaheen, 1988: 423). Such examples are found
in very popular family films such as Aladdin and Father of the Bride, II
and in hit action films such as Navy SEALS and Executive Decision.
Although these are only three instances of Hollywood’s lack of discretion
when portraying minorities in film and on television, they are three of
the most common. At one point, all Chinese actors were in Westerns
playing the part of laundry workers, in B-grade Godzilla films, or in Karate
films playing “cops ‘n’ robbers.” Germans were all Nazis circa World
War I and II. Africans lived in the jungle and rode elephants and
threw spears to hunt. Native American Indians were savages or lowly
sidekicks. And the list goes on. A new trend sees the Irish
as all being members of the Irish Republican Army attempting to bomb British
targets, ala Patriot Games and The Crying Game. Jamaicans are marijuana-smoking
reggae artists. Pakistanis all work in 7-11 convenient stores (Abu
in The Simpsons). And the list goes on. Are all of these images
simply instances of innocent attempts at comedy and not intended to offend
or hurt? Or are they institutionalized racism? More important
is how these images permeate our society’s fabric. Practically any
American asked to list the stereotypes of the above-mentioned groups would
likely list similar, if not identical, answers. Obviously, then,
these groups do have a legitimate complaint about their treatment by Hollywood,
and it is not the case that minorities are just trying to enforce political
correctness on the rest of the world to bring attention to themselves as
some would have us believe.
Profile of Selected Ethnic Groups
This part of the paper is not meant to categorize all of these groups into neat little packages or to imply that all members of these groups are homogenous in their traits, beliefs, or actions. The intent of this section is to bring out unique aspects of these groups, understanding that American businessmen and businesswomen might be best served to be familiar with these customs before travelling abroad or meeting foreign counterparts here in the US. I will highlight three major groups Americans may encounter abroad or at home, as the world becomes smaller and smaller, and businesses become more and more international – Muslims/Arabs, Chinese, Sub-Saharan Africans.
MUSLIMS/ARABS.
One of the first mistakes Americans make is using the names Muslims
and Arabs interchangeably. Muslims are a religious group, and Arabs
are an ethnic group, but many in the US do not or cannot make the distinction.
The fact that many Arabs are Muslims is not an excuse for this type of
mistake in logic, especially since most Muslims in the world live outside
of the Middle East. Some of the common characteristics of both groups
are:
-Strong sense of community (Scarborough, 1998: 112)
-Look to outside intervention for mediation of disputes (p. 111)
-Strongly devout in their chosen religious faith (p. 108)
-Fatalistic view of life (all is Allah’s will) (p.112)
CHINESE.
Since the “opening of China” under the Nixon Administration, China
has been a source of intrigue to Americans. Because few Americans
have actually had the opportunity to enter the borders of China, most of
what they know about China comes from short clips in the news or from Hollywood.
Here are a few characteristics of the “typical” Chinese citizen.
-Organization as a paternal figure (Scarborough, 1998: 48)
-Status through achievement and loyalty (p. 63)
-Secular view of the world and society (p. 60)
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICANS.
Although Sub-Saharan Africa is a collection of almost 40 different
countries, many share universal cultural similarities. Although the
continent was severely fragmented as a result of continual colonization
during the last five centuries, certain cultural aspects still flourish.
-Leadership tends to be paternalistic and hierarchical (Scarborough,
1998: 248)
-Collectivism is a must, as the society is the backbone of society
(p. 249)
-High value on leisure time/ritualistic activities (p. 249)
-Embrace social institutions that promote profit-sharing and equity
(p. 249)
These are not the only differences of these groups from the “typical”
American norm, simply the most important aspects of these groups.
This small amount of knowledge may help to avoid embarrassment or worse,
but before one feels completely at ease in another country, it is advisable
that companies or individuals make education about foreign cultures as
universal as education about any other important business tactic.
A simple social faux pas could mean the difference between impressing or
offending, closing the deal or losing it.
Work Cited
Rivera, Y. (1998). Network Latino Coverage Low, Study Finds.
Ithaca College. www.nahj.org/0612surv.htm (Downloaded 5 December 1998)
Scarborough, J. (1998). The Origins of Cultural Differences and
Their Impact on Management. Westport: Quorum Books.
Shaheen, J. (1998). The Face of Arabs in American Mass Media. Culture,
Communication and Conflict. Gary Weaver, ed. USA: Simon &
Schuster, pp.421-428.
www.pomona.edu/REPRES/BLACKS/enter.html (Downloaded 5 December
1998)
Multicultural Marketing
By Virginia Rada
“International marketing and advertising people, are led by wishful
thinking:
They want people to be the same, to have the same needs and aspirations.
This leads to cultural blindness, both perceptual and conceptual blindness.”
(Marieke de Mooij)
For people concerned with global marketing and communications, the most important aspect of culture is that it influences our perception, our own culture drives how we communicate and what we communicate. We produce, create, and send what fits our own patterns of learning and our own pictorial conventions, our own language, our own vocabulary. Classification of cultures is necessary to develop marketing and advertising strategies in the global marketplace. A broad classification is the degree to which cultures contextualize, which is reflected in the type of communication cultures use. The difference between high and low context communication cultures helps us understand why, for example, Japanese and America advertising styles are so different, why the Japanese prefer indirect verbal communication and symbolism over the direct assertive communication approaches used by Americans.
What people buy and why they buy certain products is influenced by their cultural values. Finding such strong correlations between actual buying behavior and cultural dimensions should be exciting. Motives for buying products vary among and within geographic areas.
The concepts of self, identity, and personality are integral parts of
consumer psychology. Also, for developing effective marketing strategies,
it is important to distinguish between behavior that is strongly influenced
by cultural values and behavior that is more influenced by economic variable.
In some cultures, advertising use to be persuasive by nature, in others,
advertising is to build trust between companies and consumers. Models
of one culture cannot be projected to other cultures. The basic difference
is between communication styles. The ability to distinguish among
the different communication styles is the first step to understanding why
advertising cannot be equally effective in all cultures.
The combination of the appeal, advertising form, and execution will
reflect cultural values. Appeals usually studied in cross - cultural
advertising and what culture’s characteristics they suggest, according
to Albers are:
- Individualism: Independence, distinctive, freedom, independence.
- Collectivism: Conformity, popular, family, community, affiliation
- High Power distance: Power, ornamental, dear, health, sex.
- Low Power distance: Submission, cheap, humility
- Masculinity: Achievement, effective, durable, convenient, self-respect
- Femininity: Quality of life, relax, natural, modest.
Culture and Consumer Behavior
How people behave and what motivates them, how they relate to each
other in the buying process, whether their decisions are individual decisions
or group decisions, all is influenced by the culture to which they belong.
Consumption decisions can be driven by functional or social needs.
What to some appear to be functional needs, to others are social needs.
In the other hand, the study of motivation, the mixture of wants, needs,
and drives within the individual, is seen as of prime importance to understanding
behavior. Studying motivation helps to find “why” of our behavior.
It seeks to identify attitudes, beliefs, motives, and other pressures that
influence our purchase decisions. There is a strong relationship
among values, attitudes, needs, and motivations. Understanding the
variations in what motivates people is important for positioning brands
in different markets. It explains differences in brand, loyalty, brand
preference, brand image. It explains differences in sensitivity to
certain product attributes and advertising appeals can be explained by
culturally defined motives.
Advertising styles
The advertising styles of countries reflect the cultural values of those countries. Because advertising is an expression of culture, the symbols and rituals used may even reinforce cultural values. Hence the sensual and erotic style of French advertising would not work in Germany, whose advertising style reflects the need for structure, directness, and facts. Italian and Spaniard advertising styles reflect collectivist cultures. Japanese advertising style strongly reflects masculinity in its frequent use of celebrities. Celebrities are even creates by advertising. In contrast, Dutch advertising style strongly reflects a more feminine culture toward a softer and more entertaining type of advertising.
Overview of the USA marketplace
The USA is maybe the most representative sample of a multicultural
market. Diversity in this country constitutes a matter of economists,
sociologists and advertisers. In the process of recognition of this
fact, an important step has been done. Next year, instead of forcing
each person enumerated to identify himself in just one of 15 categories,
the census is allowing multiple choice.
The new categories for race include white, African-American, American-Indian or Alaskan Native, Asian-Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, other Asians, Native Hawaiian, Guamanian or Chamorro, Samoan, other Pacific Islander and other race. The Hispanic category is not considered a racial group anymore because is accounted as a mix of ethnicity. By the way, Hispanic population is growing rapidly in the USA.
Hispanic Market:
- 76% percent of all US Hispanics reside in just five states: California,
Texas, Illinois, New York and Florida (highly concentrate geographically)
- The Hispanic population is predominantly young. Median age
of American Hispanic is 24, six years younger than the overall population.
- On average, Hispanic spend $107 per week for groceries, as opposed
to $90 per week among non-Hispanic shoppers.
- The heavy concentration of Hispanic in a few major markets makes
national advertising an inefficient proposition.
- There are distinct subcultures with different attitudes, lifestyles
and consumer interests.
- The cultural influences of Hispanic migrating from different countries
and residing in different region also need to be considered.
- The choice of language to use in a campaign aimed at Hispanic can
be a tricky decision. Less than half of the population say they speak
English fluently.
- Hispanics are brand loyal. Perceived quality, consistency,
and tradition are also believed to influence the brand-loyal behavior of
Hispanic consumers.
Asian American Market
- “Model minority” ... prosperous, affluent, and powerful.
- They are not a single race of people: Categories include Chinese,
Japanese, Koreans, Pacific Islanders, Filipinos and Vietnamese.
- Chinese and Filipinos the largest groups in the US
- Households are larger than those of other Americans.
- Tend to live in urban areas, 56 % live in California and Hawaii.
- Their economic clout rest in their educational levels.
- They are the only ethnic group with a higher income and lower unemployment
than whites. They also save 20% of everything they earn, a rate considerably
higher than the national average.
- Marketers tend to target them with financial services and electronic
products.
- Use more newspapers as information sources than other minorities.
- Strong ties to family and culture.
- Older Asians like to see advertising in their native language.
Bibliography
Albers, N.D. (1994). Relating Hofstede’s dimensions of culture to international variations in print advertisements: A comparison of appeals. A doctoral dissertation presented to the Faculty of the College of Business Administration, University of Houston, May.
Albers-Miller, Nancy D and Betsy D. Gelb (1996) “Business Advertising Appeals as a Mirror of Cultural Dimensions” Journal of Advertising. Vol. 25 No.4:58-70
Baker Woods, Gail. (1995). Advertising and marketing to the new majority. Wadsworth Publishing Company. pp. 182
Mooil, Marieke de. (1998) Global Marketing and Advertising. Sage Publications. pp.316
Taylor, Charles R. and Barbara B. Stern. (1997) “Television Advertising and the Model Minority Stereotype”. The Journal of Advertising. Vol.26 No. 2:47-59
Taylor, Charles and Hae-Kyong Bang (1997) “Portrayals of Latinos in
Magazine Advertising” J&MC Quarterly. Vol.74, No.2:285-303
Managing Diversity
By Eric Burroughs
Increased diversity in the American workplace and the clashing of cultures through globalization are two trends that have profound implications for management and the way people communicate with one another. Old hierarchies are all but relics of the past, and these changes demand a new way of approaching interpersonal relations and new competencies to make the most out of any opportunity.
Among many definitions, this is probably the best and most comprehensive: Managing diversity requires valuing differences first, then creating structural or cultural changes that empower all members of the workforce to achieve meaning in their work and maximize their potential in pursuit of organizational objectives (Roosevelt, 1991-2).
Approaching the topic of diversity is an absolute necessity for corporate America today. One look at the lawsuits that have been successfully settled in the last few years illustrates markedly the expense that avoiding such changes or perpetuating bad habits of the past can have. Since 1992, over half a billion dollars has been paid out in various discrimination lawsuits around the country. The reality of demographic changes taking place now and still to come make this type of active pursuance of imperative an imperative (Gardenwatz, 1998).
There are many other reasons why this is the case as well. Adapting to the changing demographics of the country must be done by market necessity. The combined African-American, Asian and Hispanic buying power is estimated at over $500 billion. Women are the primary investors of over half of US households. and over 40 percent of African-Americans recently qualified ³black employment² as an important factor in their buying decisions.
Next is getting the most from the diverse human capital in an organization. The workforce is only going to continue to add more women, minorities and immigrants. Employees of all these groups are expecting more from organizations, from hostile-free working environments to family-friendly benefits. Commitment and productivity are lost if employees feel disregarded or shut out and money is spent on legal fees and settlements that also drain morale. But diversity also matters when it comes to recruiting and retaining talent, which can expand and organization¹s creativity by bringing a mix of perspectives with new ideas to challenge accepted views.
But more than anything, the resilience and flexibility of diversity
is needed since the only certainty is continued change. Responding to and
capitalizing on a pluralistic workforce is a strategic necessity.
And while the emphasis on diversity has made much headway in recent
years, its full implementation and achievement is far from a reality. Among
trends important to the field today are extending diversity efforts beyond
the simple training they now consist of. This means bringing a greater
change to the overall organizational system by modifying it to bring long-term
change and to make people accountable for changes agreed to.
Nonetheless skills training is a crucial part in a diversity plan. The
focus now, however, needs to be on managerial and team skills. This aims
to make management a skill that incorporates views rather than dictating
decisions. Focus is also placed on internal relations between employees
as well as external relations between employees and customers. As a part
of this, conflict resolution, cross-cultural communication and problem-solving
skills in a pluralist environment will play a key role.
Next, integration means weaving diversity into all parts of an organization.
For example, this means making sure that on a company calendar all holidays,
celebrations and acknowledgments are made across all cultures and backgrounds.
Finally is the global focus that must we adapted, since from doing business
abroad or dealing with immigrants, it is unavoidable.
Several important social trends have brought these changes about. First,
technology has shifted the corporate pyramid from hierarchies to networks,
meaning the any approach to management must be altered. Then the concept
of leadership has correspondingly changed from a "command and control"
dictum to one of "inspire and communicate," a style more capable of reaching
across cultures.
Also, entrepreneurship has changed the way organizations work as entrepreneurs operate outside the corporate model and innovate new models of organization. Studies show that women executives tend to me more open and share information with the people they work with. Rises in leadership by minorities and women are likely to bring new styles of leading. And because of these changes in demographics, new leaders are coming from a variety of backgrounds and approaches, which not only affects the organization but retail buying decisions, hiring practices and corporate culture.
Many difficulties remain in assuring a place for women and minorities in the workplace. Institutions and policies need to be reformed so that women can participate fully in the economy, and so men and women have the time to invest in their children. Also, as things stand now, minority workers are less likely to have had satisfactory schooling and on-the-job training to take advantage of the jobs that will exist in the changing economy. Without substantial adjustments, African-Americans and Hispanics will have a smaller fraction of the workforce than they have today, while their share of those seeking work will have risen. The current problems women of color face in trying to rise in the workforce will also have to be challenged.
There are a gamut of strategies for managers to approach diversity (Hill, 1992). Foremost is to develop programs that promote awareness of cultural differences, such as programs, seminars, workshops or other activities with cultural awareness can be spread. On a personal level, promoting positive attitudes toward differences is necessary. This means seeking out information on special ethnic observations and events and publishing it to make it known within the organization.
It is also important to seek to reach across cultures by finding similarities between ethnic groups and facilitating discussion on such shared beliefs and values. A manager must also strive to be as flexible a communicator as possible. Using different channels of communication is key to making this work as the preferences of ethnic groups for communication differ. In some cases, oral communication is preferred and better received than written, such as with African-Americans. At the same time, a manager must be prepared to share his own concerns and confusions with his employees. Companies should consistently work to understand the concerns and needs of ethnic groups whether it be through questionnaires, group discussions or one-on-one counseling sessions.
Managers need to make minorities involved in the decision making process by having representatives involved. To do this, a free-flowing communication network so minority input can reach the levels where decisions are made and approved. Feedback should also be solicited from minority employees to obtain different perspectives regarding decisions that affect their work performance. Managers also need to realize that there is no one way for operating and that flexibility can help reach the most potential of diverse employees. Simply allowing flexible dress codes or allowing minorities to celebrate holidays goes a long way. It is also the responsibility of the manager to challenge all stereotypes about minority groups. And in the end, efforts must be made to include minority groups in after-work engagements and company-sponsored events to establish a more natural vein of communication outside the organization structure. This type of communication, when facilitated, is often the most valuable.
This concept of managing diversity has generate a variety of models that each seek to establish the cooperative framework in which communication and productivity can flourish. A few will be cited here. First is the Cultural Contingency, or Equifinality, model. This model recognizes that there are many equally valid paths to reaching a final goal and that the best way depends on the cultural mix involved (Adler, 1986). Another, the Empowerment Model, emphasizes managing as enabling employees to behave in ways required to achieve business objectives, and that managing must be done over ³doing² in the traditional American model (Thomas, 1991-2). Approaching diversity from as a form of synergy, the Integrative Approach attempts to use cultural similarities and differences to create a new, integrative organizational culture that goes beyond the individual ways of managing organization members or clients, and unlike equifinality, it is an approach to cross-cultural interaction to create a new organizational culture (Adler, 1986).
What each of these models attempts to take into consideration is the
cultural differences that shape our behavior, attitudes, beliefs and values
in a concrete way. Thus, taking into consideration the general differences
between cultures is also key. On one level is the differences between individualist
and collectivist cultures and how they define quality of life (Hofstede,
1984). Individualist cultures achievement, such as in a capitalist system,
and they place more importance on the task than any peripheral relationships.
Collectivist
cultures, on the other hand, define quality of life in terms of social
relationships, with family and friends.
Collectivist members seek the satisfaction of a job well recognized
and place much more importance on the relationship than on the task.
Broadly differentiating cultures can also be done by looking at free
will versus determinism in societies (Adler, 1986). In cultures that place
greater emphasis on free will, the individual is seen as in control on
the environment, while a determinist cultures views attitudes, behaviors
and goals as beyond the individual¹s control. Since American
styles of organization have always been based on a high degree of free
will, cross-cultural approaches today accept a greater degree of determinism
in the organization.
Hofstede (1984) has also defined other cultural orientation characteristics that help to define the attitudes and actions of cultures. Hofstede describes masculinity in cultures as the desirability of achievement and femininity as the desirability for interpersonal relationships. With the concept of power distance, the strength of the need of people for dependence on more powerful members among the adult members of a society is assessed. If power distance is low in a country, then is expected everyone should have a say in everything that concerns them, such as in participatory countries such as Denmark and Sweden. And uncertainty avoidance looks at the way members of a society emphasize personal risk taking (weak uncertainty avoidance) as opposed to personal security (strong uncertainty avoidance). As Hofstede¹s charts (pp. 150-152) illustrate, than can be many vast differences between countries and cultures on these scales. Such differences in cultural orientation are what must now be incorporated and accounted for in increasingly internationally diverse organizations. As it is, most global organization structures are built on the American hierarchy, exemplified by Maslow¹s hierarchy of needs that emphasizes mid-20th century, American middle class values. Today, international managers must realize which countries tend to order human needs differently. These countries are not necessarily inferior technologically, economically or in the quality of management. However, dominant motivation patterns may affect the type of economic and technological activities at which a country is best. In general, masculine countries are better at mass production while feminine countries are better at services. For example, the Netherlands and Denmark, ranked strongly on the feminine scale, are home to the leading countries in the world in enzymes and penicillin. Improving the quality of life is often interpreted as the satisfaction of higher needs on a need hierarchy. But different cultures have different need hierarchies. All this variety of difference between cultures, while cumbersome, will have to be considered as the nature of work and organization continues to spread beyond borders.
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